Barry, A., The Parables of the Old Testament, 226.
Benson, E. W., Fishers of Men (1893), 135.
Black, H., University Sermons (1908), 223.
Brooks, P., The Mystery of Iniquity (1893), 208.
Butler, J., Works (ed. W. E. Gladstone), ii. (1896) 121.
Clapperton, J. A., in The Divine Artist (1903), 135.
Cox, S., Balaam (1884).
Dods, M., Christ and Man (1909), 163.
Eyton, R., The True Life (1889), 319, 334.
Gray, G. B., Numbers (International Critical Commentary) (1903), 307.
Greenhough, J. G., Old Pictures in Modern Frames (1902), 49.
Greer, D. H., From Things to God (1893), 176.
Hunt, A. N., Sermons for the Christian Year, ii. (1891) 59.
Kalisch, M. M., Bible Studies, i. (1877).
Liddon, H. P., Sermons (Contemporary Pulpit Library), iii. (1902) 129.
Lightfoot, J. B., Sermons Preached in St. Paul's Cathedral (1891), 1.
Lock, W., The Bible and Christian Life (1905), 141.
Longhurst, T. J., The Royal Master (1905), 191.
Maclaren, A., Expositions: Exodus, etc. (1906), 367, 371.
Moberly, G., Sermons on the Beatitudes (1861), 203.
Mortimer, A. G., Studies in Holy Scripture (1901), 71.
Munger, T. T., The Appeal to Life (1887), 107.
Newman, J. H., Parochial and Plain Sermons, iv. (1868) 18.
Peck, G. C., Vision and Task (1905), 163.
Plummer, A., The Humanity of Christ, 155.
Randolph, B. W., Christ in the Old Testament (1907), 35.
Skrine, J. H., Sermons to Pastors and Masters (1910), 23.
Stanley, A. P., Scripture Portraits (1867), 36.
Trench, R. C., Shipwrecks of Faith (1867), 1.
Tuckwell, W., Nuggets from the Bible Mine (1913), 42.
Vaughan, C. J., University Sermons (1888), 319.
Watson, R. A., The Book of Numbers (Expositor's Bible) (1894), 260.
Wharton, M. B., Famous Men of the Old Testament (1903), 279.
Wilberforce, B., “Following on to Know the Lord” (1903), 185.
Wilson, J. M., Truths New and Old (1900), 156.
Wilson, S., Lenten Shadows and Easter Lights (1910), 154.
Christian Commonwealth, xxxi. (1911) 457 (R. J. Campbell).
Dictionary of the Bible, i. (1898) 232 (F. H. Woods).
Balaam
Balaam the son of Beor, who loved the wages of unrighteousness (R.V. the hire of wrong-doing).- 2Pe_2:15.
1. Balaam is the subject of a very remarkable story in connexion with the wanderings of the Israelites in the wilderness. The present narrative has arisen from the combination of several more or less ancient traditions. According to the latest, embodied in the Priestly Code (P), and contained in Num_31:8-16. (cf. Rev_2:14), Balaam was a Midianitish counsellor, who persuaded his people to seduce the Israelites by means of certain immoral rites. This is probably to be connected with the great sin of Baal-peor (Num_25:1-18), or, to be more accurate, with the affair of Cozbi, which has been combined with the story of Baal-peor, the former being connected with the Midianites, the latter with the Moabites. In revenge for this, Balaam was afterwards slain with the princes of Midian (Num_31:1-54, Jos_13:1-33). It has been conjectured that this story arose partly out of a difficulty on the part of the Priestly narrator in conceiving of a heathen being an inspired prophet of God, partly from the need of accounting for the great sin of the Israelites. It is, however, very doubtful whether this story belongs to the earliest form of P, and it is assigned by Kuenen to the very latest redactor. It is significant that Rev_2:1-29 definitely connects the immorality with sacrificial rites to heathen gods, a fact implied, but not distinctly stated, by P.
The more ancient and far more picturesque story is that contained in Num_22:1-41; Num_23:1-30; Num_24:1-25. According to this, Balaam is a prophet from Pethor, which is by the Euphrates, a place otherwise unknown, who is bribed by Balak, king of Moab, to come and pronounce a curse on the Israelites. Balaam earnestly endeavours to carry out Balak's wishes, but by Divine inspiration pronounces a blessing instead of a curse. He is dismissed by Balak, and returns to his home, and is heard of no more. It is obvious that this story has no point of contact with that of P, and can be reconciled with it only by modifying or eliminating ch. 24. If Balaam had returned to his home, he could not be in the Midianitish camp immediately afterwards. It is generally admitted that Num_22:1-41; Num_23:1-30; Num_24:1-25 belongs to the composite narrative known as JE. But there is some difference of opinion as regards the critical analysis of the passage.
(1) The most important difference in the stories is the contrast which they present in the character of Balaam. In J there is nothing reproachful in his conduct. He acts up to his light with perfect consistency. But the Balaam of E is of a much lower order. He has indeed a higher perception of the moral beauty of righteousness. He can say with all sincerity, “Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his!” (Num_23:10). But, in spite of such noble sentiments, the Balaam of E is a selfish, grasping man. He covets the rewards of Balak, and is restrained from taking them only by a sordid fear of God, who could make the consequence of so doing worse than losing them. He is not content to know God's will, but tries by every means in his power to cajole God into changing His mind, or, in other words, making wrong right.1 [Note: F. H. Woods, in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, i. 233.]
(2) It has been pointed out that to draw from the story a consistent character sketch is not only impracticable, because the story itself is not consistent, but also beside the mark. The author's purpose is not to make a character sketch and deliver an ethical lesson; what he is aiming at is to contrast the religion of the Gentile world, embodied in Balaam, with the religion of Israel. His motive is perfectly clear, though it has generally been hidden (or at least cast into the shade) by undue prominence given to what is not a matter of leading interest with the writer, viz., the character of Balaam. Balak, except in so far as he represents Moab, and Balaam are in reality subordinate figures in the story; the protagonists are Israel and Moab; the overruling thought is Jehovah's power to defend His people and His purposes of good concerning them, and the fatal madness of those who, through them, oppose Him.
(3) The same motive governs the two different stories which have been brought together by the editor (JE); and it was carefully preserved in the story as it left his hands. Drawing on both sources (J and E), the editor is indifferent to incongruities, produced by his method, which strike the modern reader; but he is careful so to combine his material as to give fuller effect to the leading motive. Not once or twice only, but thrice in this final form of the story, does Balak persist in his attempt to get Israel cursed; and at each attempt his own doom approaches nearer: for, as the editor has arranged them, the poems rise to a climax. In the fourth unsolicited poem the climax is reached. Moab itself is singled out by name as about to perish before Israel; and on this note the episode in JE closed. All that followed it was the simple statement that Balaam and Balak went their respective ways.
(4) The subsequent fortunes of the seer were irrelevant to the story. But the curiosity out of which the Haggadic Midrash on the Old Testament sprang wanted to know more both of his fate and of his character and personality; and after its wont it created what it wanted, till in the course of time it gave Philo material for his lengthy and spirited description. In particular, the exclusive spirit of a later age could not tolerate the appearance of a true prophet of God among the heathen; it consequently took care to represent him in an unfavourable light. Such is the general tendency, though even later there are rare exceptions to it.
Some regret may be felt on the ground that such a critical analysis of Balaam's story destroys its value as the study of an instructively composite character. But this is not so much so as appears at first sight. The great sermon of Bishop Butler, for example, depends almost entirely on the narrative of E. His allusion to P's story as part of Balaam's career does not affect his main argument much more than the words of Micah erroneously put by him into Balaam's mouth. The real value of his sermon arises out of his insight into human nature and motive. On the other side, it is only fair to state that the critical process removes at least one very serious moral difficulty-that, as the narrative now stands, God allows Balaam to go on certain conditions and, before the conditions have been violated, is angry, and punishes him for acting on this permission.1 [Note: F. H. Woods, in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, i. 234.]
2. One may accept this correction of the customary treatment of this scripture, and yet, none the less, and even under the light of the new critical understanding of the record, return to the older point of view. It is true that there is one Balaam of the Jehovist, and another of the Elohist, and another of the Priestly writer. We have to face not only the fact that there are three different traditions, but the fact that the compiler of JE combined the first two so closely that they are almost inextricable, and that the ultimate compiler of the Hexateuch, perhaps with a deeper insight into human nature than some of his modern interpreters, has had no scruple in combining the three and treating them all as features of one and the same character. The terrible warning of the character remains untouched, an awful lesson to all religious men who hold parley with suggestions of avarice; an appalling portrait of the double-hearted man, unstable in all his ways; a warning especially to the preacher that no beauty of utterance, however flawlessly beautiful, no heralding of truth to others, however unqualifiedly true, is sufficient to prevent a man from being himself a castaway. It concerns us little to analyse the work of Elohist, Jehovist, Editor, if only we have seen by their joint work a Balaam who is of a type that does exist; if only he mirrors to our eye a moral situation and a spiritual fortune which has been, or may come to be, the situation and fortune of ourselves or a brother man.
My tastes are with the aristocrat, my principles with the mob. I know how the recoil from vulgarity and mobocracy, with thin-skinned, over-fastidious sensitiveness, has stood in the way of my doing the good I might do. My own sympathies and principles in this matter are in constant antagonism, and until these can be harmonized true Christianity is impracticable. A greater felt the same-Milton; but he worked far more ardently for his principles. To give a less august precedent: poor Balaam was in a similar antagonism, with tastes, love of poetry, etc., on the side of Balak; principles on the side of Israel; only gold inclined the scales to the wrong side, which happily is not my temptation.1 [Note: Life and Letters of F. W. Robertson, 383.]
