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( îַìְçָîָä , milchamah', Deuteronomy ii, 32; 1Ki_20:26; 2 Chronicles 26 :l11; 32:2, war or battle, as usually rendered; or îִòִøָëָä , maaracah', 1Sa_17:20, battle-array, as often rendered; in other passages some form of the verbs ìָçִí , öָáָà etc.; Gr. ðýëïìïò war, as usually rendered, or ìá÷ή ; also ἄãùí , etc.). Thee Israelites began their existence as a nat-ion with an aggressive campaign, in the sequel of which nevertheless they were from time to time compelled to occupy a defensive position throughout the entire period of the Judges (q.v.). This consisted, however, for the most part, of tumultnary and disconnected skirmishes. Regular engagements first occurred under (Saul and) David; and the frequent hostile collisions of disciplined Hebrew generals in, the civil and foreign commotions of subsequent periods must have greatly stimulated military training. The opening of a campaign (generally in spring, 2Sa_11:1; Josephus, Ant. 7:6, 3; Harmer, ii, 283), as well as of single engagements, although not prefaced by regular diplomatic communications or a declaration of war (but see Jdg_11:12 sq.; 1Ki_20:2 sq.; 2Ki_14:8; Josephus, Ant. 4:8, 41), was preceded in important and deliberate cases by an interrogation of the Urim (q.v.) and Thummims (Jdg_20:27 sq;; 1Sa_14:37; 1Sa_23:2; 1Sa_28:6; 1Sa_20:8) or a prophet (1Ki_22:6 sq.; 2Ch_18:4 sq.; 2Ki_19:2 sq.), in like manner as the Greeks consulted oracles before beginning a contest, and even took seers with them to the field (see Wachsmuth, Hellen. Aterth. iii, 390, 411). A peculiar species of divination prior to an attack is mentioned- (Eze_21:20 -sq.) with regard to the Chaldaeans, SEE LOT, like the extispicium. of the Romans (Cicero, Divin. i, 16; ii. 12 sq.). SEE SOOTHSAYER.
In solemn instances, while the army stood in sight of the enemy, an offering was brought (1Sa_7:9; 1Sa_13:9 sq.), and a priest (Deu_20:2 sq.), who always appears to have accompanied the prince to the field (2Ch_13:12; 2Ch_13:14; comp. Num_10:9; a specially selected and anointed functionary of this kind, like a modern field chaplain [Mill, De sacerdote cast-enssi veter.- Hebr Utr. 17281, is , mentioned in the Mishna, Sotah, 8:1, by the taste of ' îָùּׁåּçִ îìְçָîָä ëּäֵï , see Reland, Amitiq. Sacm. ii, 3, 2; Otho, ex. Reabb. p. 89; Van Alphen, in Oebrich's Collectio, ii, 515 sq.; Tatii Diss. de sacerdote castr. Hebr., and Ugolini Diss. deasacea. castr. [both in Ugolini Thesaur. xii]; Thorschmied, De sacerdote ad bell. uncto, Torg. 1737; Kretzsachmar, De uncto belli, Dresd. 1738; although not mentioned in the O.T. books; comp. Deyling, Observe. ii, 298, Lakemacher, Observv. Philol. iii, 236 sq.), or the commander himself, delivered a hortatory oration (2Ch_20:20). Then followed my a trumpet blast the signal for the conflict (Num_13:12; 1Ma_16:8), and the struggle began amid terrific battle-cries ( úְּøåּòָä 1Sa_17:52; Isa_13:13; Amo_1:14; Jeremiah 1, 42; Eze_21:22; as among almost all ancient nations; see especially Homer, Il. ii, 144 sq., 394 sq.; iii, 2 sq.; 4:452 sq.; Son_3:10; Son_3:1; Tacit. Germ. iii, a; Dougtsei Analect. i, 74 sq.; Potter, Greek Antiq. ii, 174 sq.). The battle-array îִòֲøָëָä or îִòֲøֶëֶú 2Sa_4:2; 2Sa_22:8; 2Sa_22:20, etc.; comp. òָøִêְ , Jdg_20:30; 1Sa_17:21) appears to have been a simple ranging of the troops in line; and even is- the Maccabean period, when the Jews bad acquired some of the strategic art of the Greek' Syrians, their leaders seem to ham-c rested in their simple tactics, gaining advantage over the martial skill of the enemy chiefly by their patriotic valor. Scientific marshallings and exact military lists are mentioned in 1Ma_7:36 sq.; 1Ma_9:11 ; comp. 1Ma_9:45 (see Joseph. Ant. 13:12, 5); 10:77 sq.; 12:28. The foreign troops of the later Jewish kings were maneuvered according to Greek and Roman tactics (comp. Joseph. Ant. 13:12, 5). For stratagems of the Jews during their final war, see Josephus, War, iii, 7, 13, 14, 20, 28. Nevertheless we can early trace a division of the army into three corps, probably with a view to charge the enemy in the centre- and upon both flanks (Jdg_7:16; Jdg_7:19; 1Sa_11:11; 2Sa_18:2; comp. 1Ma_5:33; so four divisions, 2Ma_8:22 : the expression wings of the army was already known, comp. ëְּðָôַéí 2Ma_8:8; àֲâִôַּéí ." Eze_12:14; Eze_12:17; Eze_38:6, etc.; see Gesesius, Comment. zu Jes. i, 335, and Thesaur. p. ?29).
The field was probably fought man against man.. The extended arms of the combatants appear to have been bare ("exserti lacerti, humeri,", etc. Sil. Ital. 12:715; Lucan, ii, 543; Stat-is, Theb. i, 413 etc.), the military mantle having no armlets (comp. Eze_4:7; Isa_52:10; so Dougtaei Analect. 1, 257 sq.). Great prowess, especially bodily dexterity' and agility (for attack sand pursuit), was a main qualification for the soldier or officer (2Sa_1:23; 2Sa_2:18; 1Ch_12:8; Hab_3:19; the " swift of foot" of the Homeric heroes). Signals for retreat or desisting from pursuit of the enemy were sounded on the trumpet ( ùׁåֹôָø , 2Sa_2:28; 2Sa_18:16; 2Sa_20:22). Single combat (q.v.) between two champions, which decided the battle (like the Horatii and Curiatii of Livy, i, 24), is the well-known one between David and Goliath (1 Samuel 17);' another example occurs 2Sa_2:14 sq. Sometimes peculiar stratagems were resorted to in the fight (comp. 2Ki_7:12 sq.; see Rosenmuller, Morgenl. iii, 233 sq.), especially the surprise (Jdg_7:16 sq.), the ambuscade ( àֹøֶá Jos_8:2; Jos_8:12; Jdg_20:36; 1Sa_15:5), and surrounding (2Sa_5:23). Informants and spies îִøְâְּìַéí , êáôÜóêïðïé were also employed (Jos_2:6; Jos_2:22; Jdg_7:11 sq.; 1Sa_26:4; 1Ma_5:38; 1Ma_12:26). Distinguished acts of individual valor were often secured by an appointed prize (Jos_15:16; Jdg_1:12; 1Sa_17:25 sq.; 1Sa_18:25 sq.; 1Ch_11:6). With the design of insuring a successful issue in battle, the sanctuary (ark of the covenant) was sometimes carried into the field (1Sa_4:4 sq.; comp. 2Sa_5:21). We have no sufficient accounts at the disposition of the Hebrew camp aside from the Mosaic arrangement (Numbers 2); although from 1Sa_17:20; 1Sa_26:5, it appears to have had a circular form, like that of the Arabs (also the Bedosuins, Arvieux, iii, 214) and ancient Greeks (Xesoph. Rep. Laced. 12:1), and we may understand the term îִòַâָּì (Auth. Vers. "trench") to refer to the bulwark of vehicles and beasts of burden, or (with Thenius) the circumvallation of the encampment (q.v.). The camps were usually guarded by carefully-posted sentinels (Jdg_7:19; 1Ma_12:27), and during the action a garrison remained in them or among the baggage (1Sa_30:24). Vanquished enemies were in general treated very severely: the captured generals and princes were put to death (Jos_10:24; Jdg_7:25); not unfrequently they were cut to pieces alive or beheaded when dead (2Ma_15:30; 1Sa_17:54; comp. Herodot. 7:77; Joseph. War, i, 17, 2); all warriors sere stripped (1Sa_31:8; 2Ma_8:27), and the living captives either carried into-slavery (Num_31:26 sq.; Deu_20:14; some mitigation, however being shown in the case of females, Deu_21:11 sq.) or put to death (Jdg_9:45), sometimes in a cruel manner (2Sa_12:31; 2Ch_23:12; comp. Jdg_8:7), or even mutilated (Jdg_1:6 sq.; 1Sa_11:2), although these cases of extreme severity are evidently peculiar and exceptional. As in all ancient warfare, the gentler sexs and tender age were not always spared amid the ruthless fury of vengeance: there are notices of women violated or disembowelled of their unborn infants and of children dashed in pieces against stones and the corners of streets (2Ki_15:16; comp. 2Ki_8:12; Isa_13:16; Amo_1:13; Hos_10:14; Hos_14:1; Nah_3:10; 2Ma_5:13; see Schultens, Monument. histor. Arab. -p. 125 Wachesmuth, Hellen. Alterthiimer, iii, 425); although these occur chiefly in connection with heathen countries (comp. Josephus, Apion, ii, 29). Captured horses' were hamstrung (2Sa_8:4; Jos_11:6; Jos_11:9). But SEE BOOTY.
Conquered cities were occasionally burnt or demolished (Jdg_9:45; 1Ma_5:28; 1Ma_5:52; 1Ma_10:84); at least heathen sanctuaries were destroyed (1Ma_5:68; 1Ma_10:84) or carried away (Isaiah 46, see Gesenius, Comment. in loc.): the open country itself was laid waste (Jdg_6:4; 1Ch_20:1; 2Ki_3:19; 2Ki_3:25; comp. Judith ii, 17; Herodot. i, 17). Sometimes the conquerors contented themselves with pulling down the fortifications and carrying away the treasures (2Ki_14:14; comp. 1Ki_14:26; 2Ki_24:13), demanded hostages (2Ki_14:14), and exacted contributions (2Ki_18:14; see Isa_33:18); garrisons were also left in charge (2Sa_8:6; 2Sa_8:14). But a more absolute war of extermination was waged by the Hebrew people against the Canaanites on the episode into Palestine. SEE ACCURSED. Victory was celebrated with joyful shouts, songs, and dances (Judges 5 :1Sa_18:6 sq.; 2 Samuel 22; Jdt_16:2; Jdt_16:24; 1Ma_4:24); trophies were also set up (1Sa_15:12; 2Sa_8:13; but see Thenius, ad loc.). As permanent memorials of good fortune in war, captured weapons or pieces of armor were deposited in the sanctuary (1Sa_21:9; see. 31:10; 2Ki_11:10; 1Ch_10:10; comp. Homer, II. 7:83; Virg. En. 7:183 sq.; Justin, 9:7, Lucan, i; 240; Tacit. Anncal. i,59, 2). For military exploits, individuals were honored with presents or a promotion (1Sa_18:25 sq. [comp. Rosellini,. Moism.; Sttor. 4:74]; 2Sa_18:11), and David had a sort of honorary legion (2. Samuel 23:8).. Herod the Great once rewarded all his soldiers for a hard earned victory with money (Joseph. Ant. 14:15, 4). Leaders who fell were honored by the army with military mourning (2Sa_3:31), and their weapons were placed in their grave (Eze_32:27; comp. Dougtaei Anal. ut sup.), as in that case the burial (with the tumultuary pomp of war, Amo_2:2) of the remains was a cardinal duty of the army and its commander (1Ki_11:15). The scrupulousness of the. later Jews respecting the observance of the Sabbath (q.v.) sometimes gave the enemy an advantage over them.' See generally Lydii Syntagma de re mi'itari, c. notis Van Til (Dordaei, 1698; also in Ugolini Thes. xxvii). Kausler's Worterb. der Schlacten aller Volker (vol. i, Ulm, 1825) is of little value for Hebrew archeology. SEE BATTLE. On 1Co_9:26, SEE GAMES.