International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Genesis

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International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Genesis

Subjects in this Topic:

jenÂ´e-sis:

I. General Data

1. The Name

2. Survey of Contents

3. Connection with Succeeding Books

II. Composition of Genesis in General

1. Unity of the Biblical Text

(1) The Toledhoth

(2) Further Indication of Unity

2. Rejection of the Documentary Theory

(1) In General

(a) Statement of Theory

(b) Reasons Assigned for Divisions

(c) Examination of the Documentary Theory

(i) Style and Peculiarities of Language

(ii) Alleged Connection of Matter

(iii) The Biblico-Theological Data

(iv) Duplicates

(v) Manner in Which the Sources Are Worked Together

(vi) Criticism Carried to Extremes

(2) In View of the Names for God

(a) Error of Hypothesis in Principle

(b) False Basis of Hypothesis

(c) Improbability That Distinction of Divine Names Is without Significance

(d) Real Purpose in Use of Names for God

(i) Decreasing Use of Yahweh

(ii) Reference to Approach of Man to God, and Departure from Him

(iii) Other Reasons

(iv) Systematic Use in History of Abraham

(e) Scantiness of the Materials for Proof

(f) Self-Disintegration of the Critical Position

(g) Different Uses in the Septuagint

III. Structure of the Individual Pericopes

1. The Structure of the Prooemium (Genesis 1 through 2:3)

2. Structure of the 10 Toledhoth

IV. The Historical Character

1. History of the Patriarchs (Genesis 12 through 50)

(1) Unfounded Attacks upon the History

(a) From General Dogmatic Principles

(b) From Distance of Time

(c) From Biblical Data

(d) From Comparison with Religion of Arabia

(2) Unsatisfactory Attempts at Explaining the Patriarchal Age

(a) Explanation Based on High Places

(b) The Dating Back of Later Events to Earlier Times

(c) The Patriarchs as heroes eponymi

(d) Different Explanations Combined

(3) Positive Reasons for the Historical Character of Genesis

2. The Primitive History of Genesis 1 through 11

(1) Prominence of the Religious Element

(2) Carefulness as Regards Divergent Results of Scientific Research

(3) Frequent Confirmation of the Bible by Science

(4) Superiority of the Bible over Pagan Mythologies

Babylonian and Biblical Stories

V. Origin and Authorship of Genesis

1. Connection with Mosaic Times

2. Examination of Counter-Arguments

(1) Possibility of Later Additions

(2) â€œProphecy after the Eventâ€ Idea

(3) Special Passages Alleged to Indicate Later Date

VI. Significance

1. Lays Foundation for the Whole of Revelation - Creation, Fall, Man in Image of God, Sin, etc.

2. Preparation for Redemption - Promises and Covenants

Literature

I. General Data

1. The Name

The first book of Moses is named by the Jews from the first word, namely, ×‘Ö¼×¨××©××™×ª, bereÌ„'shÄ±Ì„th, i.e. â€œin the beginningâ€ (compare the Î’ÏÎ·ÏƒÎ¹Î¸, BreÌ„sith of Origen). In the Septuagint it is called Î“ÎµÌÎ½ÎµÏƒÎ¹Ï‚, GeÌnesis, because it recounts the beginnings of the world and of mankind. This name has passed over into the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 ad) (Liber Genesis). As a matter of fact the name is based only on the beginning of the book.

2. Survey of Contents

The book reports to us the story of the creation of the world and of the first human beings (Gen 1); of paradise and the fall (Gen 2 f); of mankind down to the Deluge (Gen 4 f; compare Gen 4, Cain and Abel); of the Deluge itself (Gen 6 through 9); of mankind down to the age of the Patriarchs (Gen 10:1 through 11:26; compare , the building of the tower of Babel); of Abraham and his house (Gen 11:27 through 25:18); of Isaac and his house (Gen 25:19 through 37:2); of Jacob and of Joseph (Gen 37:2-50:26). In other words, the Book of Genesis treats of the history of the kingdom of God on earth from the time of the creation of the world down to the beginning of Israel's sojourn in Egypt and to the death of Joseph; and it treats of these subjects in such a way that it narrates in the 1st part (Gen 1:1 through 11:26) the history of mankind; and in the 2nd part (Gen 11:27 through 50:26) the history of families; and this latter part is at the same time the beginning of the history of the chosen people, which history itself begins with Ex 1. Though the introduction, Gen 1-11, with its universal character, includes all mankind in the promise given at the beginning of the history of Abraham (-3), it is from the outset distinctly declared that God, even if He did originally set apart one man and his family (Gen 12 through 50), and after that a single nation (Ex 1ff), nevertheless intends that this particularistic development of the plan of salvation is eventually to include all mankind. The manner in which salvation is developed historically is particularistic, but its purposes are universal.

3. Connection with Succeeding Books

By the statements just made it has already been indicated in what close connection Genesis stands with the subsequent books of the sacred Scriptures. The history of the chosen people, which begins with Ex 1ff, at the very outset and with a clear purpose, refers back to the history as found in Genesis (compare -6, with ; ; and see EXODUS, I, 3), although hundreds of years had clasped between these events; which years are ignored, because they were in their details of no importance for the religious history of the people of God. But to Abraham in -3 the promise had been given, not only that he was to be the father of a mighty nation that would recognize him as their founder, and the earliest history of which is reported in Exodus and the following books of the Pentateuch, but also that the Holy Land had been promised him. In this respect, the Book of Joshua, which gives the story of the capture of this land, is also a continuation of the historical development begun in Genesis. The blessing of God pronounced over Abraham, however, continued to be efficacious also in the later times among the people who had descended from him. In this way Genesis is an introduction to all of the books of the Old Testament that follow it, which in any way have to do with the fate of this people, and originated in its midst as the result of the special relation between God and this people. But in so far as this blessing of God was to extend to all the nations of the earth (), the promises given can be entirely fulfilled only in Christ, and can expand only in the work and success of Christian missions and in the blessings that are found within Christianity. Accordingly, this book treats first of beginnings and origins, in which, as in a kernel, the entire development of the kingdom of God down to its consummation is contained (compare VI below).

II. Composition of Genesis in General

1. Unity of the Biblical Text

(1) The toÌ„ledhoÌ„th

The fact that Genesis is characterized by a far-reaching and uniform scheme has, at least in outline, been already indicated (see I, 2 and 3). This impression is confirmed when we examine matters a little more closely and study the plan and structure of the book. After the grand introitus, which reports the creation of the world (1:1-2:3) there follows in the form of 10 pericopes the historical unfolding of that which God has created, which pericopes properly in each case bear the name toÌ„ledhoÌ„th, or â€œgenerations.â€ For this word never signifies creation or generation as an act, but always the history of what has already been created or begotten, the history of generations; so that for this reason, , where mention is made of the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of heaven and of earth, cannot possibly be a superscription that has found its way here from . It is here, as it is in all cases, the superscription to what follows, and it admirably leads over from the history of creation of the heavens and the earth in Gen 1 to the continuation of this subject in the next chapter. The claim of the critics, that the redactor had at this place taken only the superscription from his source P (the priestly narrator, to whom 1 through is ascribed), but that the section of P to which this superscription originally belonged had been suppressed, is all the more monstrous a supposition as throughout suits what follows.

Only on the ground of this correct explanation of the term toÌ„ledhoÌ„th can the fact be finally and fully explained, that the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Terah contain also the history of Abraham and of Lot; the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Isaac contain the history of Jacob and Esau; the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Jacob contain the history of Joseph and his brethren. The ten toÌ„ledhoÌ„th are the following: I, Gen 2:4-4:26, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of the heavens and the earth; II, 5:1 through 6:8, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Adam; III, 6:9 through 9:29, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Noah; IV, 10:1 through 11:9, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of the sons of Noah; V, 11:10-26, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of the sons of Shem; VI, 11:27 through 25:11, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Terah; VII, -18, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Ishmael; VIII, 25:19 through 35:29, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Isaac; IX, 36:1 through 37:1, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Esau (the fact that , in addition to the instance in , contains the word toÌ„ledhoÌ„th a second time, is of no importance whatever for our discussion at this stage, as the entire chapter under any circumstances treats in some way of the history of the generations of Esau; see III, ); X, 37:2 through 50:26, the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Jacob. In each instance this superscription covers everything that follows down to the next superscription.

The number 10 is here evidently not an accidental matter. In the articles EXODUS, LEVITICUS, DAY OF ATONEMENT, also in EZEKIEL, it has been shown what role the typical numbers 4, 7, 10 and 12 play in the structure of the whole books and of the individual pericopes. (In the New Testament we meet with the same phenomenon, particularly in the Apocalypse of John; but compare also in Matthew's Gospel the 3 X 14 generations in , the 7 parables in , the 7 woes in .) In the same way the entire Book of Lev naturally falls into 10 pericopes (compare LEVITICUS, II, 2, 1), and Lev 19 contains 10 groups, each of 4 (possibly also of 5) commandments; compare possibly also -18; -18; see LEVITICUS, II, 2, 21, VI. Further, the number 10, with a greater or less degree of certainty, can be regarded as the basis for the construction of the pericopes: Ex 1:8-7:7; 7:8-13:16 (10 plagues); 13:17-18:27 (see EXODUS, II, 2:1-3); the Decalogue (); the first Book of the Covenant (21:1 through 23:13; -19), and the whole pericope 19:1 through 24:18a, as also 32:1 through 35:3 (see EXODUS, II, 2, 4, 6). In the Book of Genesis itself compare further the 10 members from Shem to Abraham (11:11-26), as also the pericopes 25:19 through 35:29; 37:2 through 50:26 (see III, 2, 8, 10 below), and the 10 nations in . And just as in the cases cited, in almost every instance, there is to be found a further division into 5 X 2 or 2 X 5 (compare, e.g. the two tables of the Decalogue); thus, too, in the Book of Genesis in each case, 5 of the 10 pericopes are more closely combined, since I-V (toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Shem inclusive) stand in a more distant, and VI-X (treating of the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Terah, or the history of Abraham) in a closer connection with the kingdom of God; and in so far, too, as the first series of toÌ„ledhoÌ„th bring into the foreground more facts and events, but the second series more individuals and persons. Possibly in this case, we can further unite 2 toÌ„ledhoÌ„th; at any rate I and II (the primitive age), III and IV (Noah and his sons), VII and VIII (Ishmael and Isaac), IX and X (Esau and Jacob) can be thus grouped.

(2) Further Indication of Unity

In addition to the systematic scheme so transparent in the entire Biblical text of the Book of Genesis, irrespective of any division into literary sources, it is to be noticed further, that in exactly the same way the history of those generations that were rejected from any connection with the kingdom of God is narrated before the history of those that remained in the kingdom of God and continued its development. Cain's history () in Jahwist (Jahwist) stands before the history of Seth ( f J; P); Japheth's and Ham's genealogy ( P; P and J) before that of Shem ( J and P), although Ham was the youngest of the three sons of Noah (); the further history of Lot ( P and J) and of Ishmael's genealogy ( P and J) before that of Isaac ( P and J and E); Esau's descendants ( R and P) before the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Jacob ( P and J and E).

In favor of the unity of the Biblical text we can also mention the fact that the Book of Genesis as a whole, irrespective of all sources, and in view of the history that begins with Ex 1ff, has a unique character, so that e.g. the intimate communion with God, of the kind which is reported in the beginning of this Book of Genesis (compare, e.g. ; ; J; , ; , P; ; J), afterward ceases; and that in Ex, on the other hand, many more miracles are reported than in the Book of Genesis (see EXODUS, III, 2); that Genesis contains rather the history of mankind and of families, while Exodus contains that of the nation (see I, 2 above); that it is only in Exodus that the law is given, while in the history of the period of the patriarchs we find only promises of the Divine grace; that all the different sources ignore the time that elapses between the close of Genesis and the beginning of Exodus; and further, that nowhere else is found anything like the number of references to the names of persons or things as are contained in Genesis (compare, e.g. ; ; , , etc., in J; , , -20, etc., in P; , , , etc., in E; ; , etc., in J and E; , etc., in R; , , , etc., in the blessing of Jacob); that the changing of the names of Abram and Sarai to Abraham and Sarah from , goes on through all the sources, while before this it is not found in any source. Finally, we would draw attention to the psychologically finely drawn portraits of Biblical persons in Genesis. The fact that the personal pronoun huÌ„' and the noun naâ€›ar are used of both masculine and feminine genders is characteristic of Genesis in common with all the books of the Pentateuch, without any difference in this regard being found in the different documents, which fact, as all those cited by us in number 1 above, militates against the division of this book into different sources. Let us now examine more closely the reason assigned for the division into different sources.

2. Rejection of the Documentary Theory

(1) In General

(A) Statement of Theory

Old Testament scholars of the most divergent tendencies are almost unanimous in dividing the Biblical text of Genesis into the sources the Priestly Code (P), Jahwist and Elohist, namely Priestly Codex, Jahwist, and Elohist. To P are attributed the following greater and connected parts: 1:1-2:4a; 5; a part of the story of the Deluge in chapters 6-9; ; 17; 23; ; ff; the most of 36. As examples of the parts assigned to J we mention 2:4b-4:26; the rest of the story of the Deluge in chapters 6-9; ; 12 f; 16; 18 f, with the exception of a few verses, which are ascribed to P; chapter 24 and others. Connected parts belonging to the Elohist (E) are claimed to begin with chapters 20 and 21 (with the exception of a number of verses which are attributed to P or J or R), and it is thought that, beginning with chapter 22, E is frequently found in the history of Jacob and of Joseph (25:19-50:26), in part, however, interwoven with J (details will be found under III, in each case under 2). This documentary theory has hitherto been antagonized only by a few individuals, such as Klostermann, Lepsius, Eerdmans, Orr, Wiener, and the author of the present article.

(B) Reasons Assigned for Divisions

As is well known, theory of separation of certain books of the Old Testament into different sources began originally with the Book of Genesis. The use made of the two names of God, namely Yahweh (Jehovah) and Elohim, caused Astruc to conclude that two principal sources had been used in the composition of the book, although other data were also used in vindication of theory; and since the days of Ilgen the conviction gained ground that there was a second Elohist (now called E), in contradistinction to the first (now called the Priestly Code (P), to whom, e.g., Gen 1 is ascribed). This second Elohist, it was claimed, also made use of the name Elohim, as did the first, but in other respects he shows greater similarity to the Jahwist. These sources were eventually traced through the entire Pentateuch and into later books, and for this reason are discussed in detail in the article PENTATEUCH. In this article we must confine ourselves to the Book of Genesis, and limit the discussion to some leading points. In addition to the names for God (see under 2), it is claimed that certain contradictions and duplicate accounts of the same matters compel us to accept different sources. Among these duplicates are found, e.g., Gen 1:1 through 2:4a the Priestly Code (P), and ff J, containing two stories of creation; J; E; J; with the narrative of how Sarah and Rebekah, the wives of the two patriarchs, were endangered; chapters 15 J and 17 the Priestly Code (P), with a double account of how God concluded His covenant with Abraham; E and J, the stories of Abimelech; chapters 16 J and 21 E, the Hagar episodes; J and E and E and the Priestly Code (P), the narratives concerning Bethel, and in the history of Joseph the mention made of the Midianites E, and of the Ishmaelites J, who took Joseph to Egypt (; ); the intervention of Reuben E, or Judah J, for Joseph, etc. In addition a peculiar style, as also distinct theological views, is claimed for each of these sources. Thus there found in P a great deal of statistical and systematic material, as in ; ; ; (the genealogies of Adam, Shem, Ishmael, Esau); P is said to show a certain preference for fixed schemes and for repetitions in his narratives. He rejects all sacrifices earlier than the Mosaic period, because according to this source the Lord did not reveal himself as Yahweh previous to . Again, it is claimed that the Elohist (E) describes God as speaking to men from heaven, or through a dream, and through an angel, while according to J Yahweh is said to have conversed with mankind personally. In regard to the peculiarities of language used by the different sources, it is impossible in this place to enumerate the different expressions, and we must refer for this subject to the different Introductions to the Old Testament, and to the commentaries and other literature. A few examples are to be found under (c) below, in connection with the discussion of the critical hypothesis. Finally, as another reason for the division of Genesis into different sources, it is claimed that the different parts of the sources, when taken together, can be united into a smooth and connected story. The documents, it is said, have in many cases been taken over word for word and have been united and interwoven in an entirely external manner, so that it is still possible to separate them and often to do this even down to parts of a sentence or to the very words.

(C) Examination of the Documentary Theory

(i) Style and Peculiarities of Language

It is self-evident that certain expressions will be repeated in historical, in legal, and in other sections similar in content; but this is not enough to prove that there have been different sources. Whenever J brings genealogies or accounts that are no less systematic than those of P (compare ; ; -24); or accounts and repetitions occur in the story of the Deluge (,; or , , ; ; or ; , , ), this is not enough to make the division into sources plausible. In reference to the linguistic peculiarities, it must be noted that the data cited to prove this point seldom agree. Thus, e.g. the verb baÌ„raÌ„', â€œcreate,â€ in is used to prove that this was written by the Priestly Code (P), but the word is found also in in J. The same is the case with the word rekhuÌ„sh, â€œpossession,â€ which in ; ; is regarded as characteristic of the Priestly Code (P), but in f,16, 21 is found in an unknown source, and in in J. In ; ; ; it is said that 'erec kenaâ€›an, â€œland of Canaan,â€ is a proof that this was written by P; but in chapters 42; 44 f; 47; 50 we find this expression in Jahwist and Elohist, in in J (R) ; compare also (PR) where -3 (JE) is quoted; shiphhÌ£aÌ„h, â€œmaid servant,â€ is claimed as a characteristic word of J in contrast to E (compare ); but in ; , we find this word not only in P but in ; , , 18; in E MÄ±Ì„n, â€œkind,â€ is counted among the marks of P (compare e.g. ), but in , , we find it in Deuteronomy; rather remarkably, too, in the latest find on the Deluge made by Hilprext and by him ascribed to 2100 bc. Compare on this subject my book, Wider den Bann der Quellenscheidung, and Orr, POT, chapter vii, section vi, and chapter x, section i; perhaps, too, the Concordance of Mandelkern under the different words. Even in the cases when the characteristic peculiarities claimed for the sources are correct, if the problem before us consisted only in the discovery of special words and expressions in the different sources, then by an analogous process, we could dissect and sever almost any modern work of literature. Particularly as far as the pieces are concerned, which are assigned to the Priestly Code (P), it must be stated that Gen 1 and 23 are, as far as style and language are concerned, different throughout. Gen 1 is entirely unique in the entire Old Testament. Gen 23 has been copied directly from life, which is pictured with exceptional fidelity, and for this reason cannot be claimed for any special source. The fact that the story of the introduction of circumcision in Gen 17 in many particulars shows similarities to the terminology of the law is entirely natural: The same is true when the chronological accounts refer one date to another and when they show a certain typical character, as is, e.g., the case also in the chronological parts of any modern history of Israel. On the other hand, the method of P in its narratives, both in matter and in form, becomes similar to that of Jahwist and Elohist, just as soon as we have to deal with larger sections; compare ; ; , and all the more in Exodus and Numbers.

Against the claim that P had an independent existence, we must mention the fact of the unevenness of the narratives, which, by the side of the fuller accounts in Gen 1; 17 and 23, of the genealogies and the story of the Deluge, would, according to the critics, have reported only a few disrupted notices about the patriarchs; compare for this in the story of Abraham, , f; f; 11b, 12a; , , f; ; , -5; -11; and in its later parts P would become still more incomprehensible on the assumption of the critics (see III below). No author could have written thus; at any rate he would not have been used by anybody, nor would there have been such care evinced in preserving his writings.

(ii) Alleged Connection of Matter

The claim that the different sources, as they have been separated by critics, constitute a compact and connected whole is absolutely the work of imagination, and is in conflict with the facts in almost every instance. This hypothesis cannot be consistently applied, even in the case of the characteristic examples cited to prove the correctness of the documentary theory, such as the story of the Deluge (see III, 2, in each case under (2)).

(iii) the Biblico-Theological Data

The different Biblical and theological data, which are said to be characteristic in proof of the separation into sources, are also misleading. Thus God in J communes with mankind only in the beginning (Gen 2 f; 16ff; ; 18 f), but not afterward. In the beginning He does this also, according to the Priestly Code (P), whose conception of God, it is generally claimed, was entirely transcendental (compare , ; , ). The mediatorship of the Angel of Yahweh is found not only in E, (, 'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m), but also in J (, -11). In in E, the angel of Yahweh (not of the 'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m) calls from heaven; theophanies in the night or during sleep are found also in J (compare ; ; -16; ). In the case of the Priestly Code (P), the cult theory, according to which it is claimed that this source does not mention any sacrifices before , is untenable. If it is a fact that theocracy, as it were, really began only in Ex 6, then it would be impossible that P would contain anything of the cults before Ex 6; but we have in P the introduction of the circumcision in Gen 17; of the Sabbath in ; and the prohibition against eating blood in ; and in addition the drink offerings mentioned in , which verse stands between and , and, ascribed to the Priestly Code (P), is only in the interests of this theory attributed to the redactor. If then theory here outlined is not tenable as far as P is concerned, it would, on the other hand, be all the more remarkable that in the story of the Deluge the distinction between the clean and the unclean (.8) is found in J, as also the savor of the sacrifice, with the term reÌ„ahÌ£ ha-nÄ±Ì„hÌ£oÌ„ahÌ£, which occurs so often in P (compare with , , , f, 24; ); that the sacrifices are mentioned in , and the number 7 in connection with the animals and days in ; , , (compare in the Priestly Code (P), e.g. ; f, 21, 26 f, 31, 33, 10, 54; f, 38 f; , ; f; ; , etc.); further, that the emphasis is laid on the 40 days in , , ; (compare in the Priestly Code (P), -8; -4; ; ), all of which are ascribed, not as we should expect, to the Levitical the Priestly Code (P), but to the prophetical J. The document the Priestly Code (P), which, according to a large number of critics, was written during the Exile (see e.g. LEVITICUS, III, 1, or EZEKIEL II, 2) in a most surprising manner, instead of giving prominence to the person of the high priest, would then have declared that kings were to be the greatest blessings to come to the seed of Abraham (, ); and while, on the critical assumption, we should have the right to expect the author to favor particularistic tendencies, he, by bringing in the history of all mankind in Gen 1 through 11, and in the extension of circumcision to strangers (, ), would have displayed a phenomenal universality. The strongest counter-argument against all such minor and incorrect data of a Biblical and a theological character will always be found in the uniform religious and ethical spirit and world of thought that pervade all these sources, as also in the unity in the accounts of the different patriarchs, who are pictured in such a masterly, psychological and consistent manner, and who could never be the result of an accidental working together and interweaving of different and independent sources (see III below).

(iv) Duplicates

In regard to what is to be thought of the different duplicates and contradictions, see below under III, 2, in each case under (2).

(v) Manner in Which the Sources Are Worked Together

But it is also impossible that these sources could have been worked together in the manner in which the critics claim that this was done. The more arbitrarily and carelessly the redactors are thought to have gone to work in many places in removing contradictions, the more incomprehensible it becomes that they at other places report faithfully such contradictions and permit these to stand side by side, or, rather, have placed them thus. And even if they are thought not to have smoothed over the difficulties anywhere, and out of reverence for their sources, not to have omitted or changed any of these reports, we certainly would have a right to think that even if they would have perchance placed side by side narratives with such enormous contradictions as there are claimed to be, e.g. in the story of the Deluge in P and J, they certainly would not have woven these together. If, notwithstanding, they still did this without harmonizing them, why are we asked to believe that at other places they omitted matters of the greatest importance (see III, 2, 3)? Further, J and E would have worked their materials together so closely at different places that a separation between the two would be an impossibility, something that is acknowledged as a fact by many Old Testament students; yet, notwithstanding, the contradictions, e.g. in the history of Joseph, have been allowed to stand side by side in consecutive verses, or have even intentionally been placed thus (compare, e.g. ). Then, too, it is in the nature of things unthinkable that three originally independent sources for the history of Israel should have constituted separate currents down to the period after Moses, and that they could yet be dovetailed, often sentence by sentence, in the manner claimed by the critics. In conclusion, the entire hypothesis suffers shipwreck through those passages which combine the peculiarities of the different sources, as e.g. in , which on the one hand constitutes the necessary conclusion to the preceding story from E (compare ), and on the other hand contains the name Yahweh; or in , which contains the real purpose of the story of the sacrificing of Isaac from E, but throughout also shows the characteristic marks of J; or in , where the so-called private person into whose house Joseph has been brought, according to J, is more exactly described as the chief of the body-guard, as this is done by E, in , . And when the critics in this passage appeal to the help of the redactor (editor), this is evidently only an ill-concealed example of a â€œbegging of the question.â€ In chapter 34, and especially in chapter 14, we have a considerable number of larger sections that contain the characteristics of two or even all three sources, and which accordingly furnish ample evidence for protesting against the whole documentary theory.

(vi) Criticism Carried to Extremes

All the difficulties that have been mentioned grow into enormous proportions when we take into consideration the following facts: To operate with the three sources J, E and P seems to be rather an easy process; but if we accept the principles that underlie this separation into sources, it is an impossibility to limit ourselves to these three sources, as a goodly number of Old Testament scholars would like to do, as Strack, Kittel, Oettli, Dillmann, Driver. The stories of the danger that attended the wives of the Patriarchs, as these are found in and in , are ascribed to J, and the story as found in to E. But evidently two sources are not enough in these cases, seeing that similar stories are always regarded as a proof that there have been different authors. Accordingly, we must claim three authors, unless it should turn out that these three stories have an altogether different signification, in which case they report three actual occurrences and may have been reported by one and the same author. The same use is made of the laughter in connection with the name Isaac in ; ; , namely, to substantiate the claim for three sources, P and J and E. But since E; J also contain references to this, and as in JE, in addition to the passage cited above, there is also a second reference of this kind, then, in consistency, the critics would be compelled to accept six sources instead of three (Sievers accepts at least 5, Gunkel 4); or all of these references point to one and the same author who took pleasure in repeating such references. As a consequence, in some critical circles scholars have reached the conclusion that there are also such further sources as J1 and Later additions to J, as also E1 and Later additions to E (compare Budde, Baudissin, Cornill, Holzinger, Kautzsch, KuÃ«nen, Sellin). But Sievers has already discovered five subordinate sources of J, six of the Priestly Code (P), and three of E, making a total of fourteen independent sources that he thinks can yet be separated accurately (not taking into consideration some remnants of J, E and P that can no longer be distinguished from others). Gunkel believes that the narratives in Genesis were originally independent and separate stories, which can to a great extent yet be distinguished in their original form. But if J and E and P from this standpoint are no longer authors but are themselves, in fact, reduced to the rank of collectors and editors, then it is absurd to speak any more of distinct linguistic peculiarities, or of certain theological ideas, or of intentional uses made of certain names of God in J and E and the Priestly Code (P), not to say anything of the connection between these sources, except perhaps in rare cases. Here the foundations of the documentary theory have been undermined by the critics themselves, without Sievers or Gunkel or the other less radical scholars intending to do such a thing. The manner in which these sources are said to have been worked together naturally becomes meaningless in view of such hypotheses. The modern methods of dividing between the sources, if consistently applied, will end in splitting the Biblical text into atoms; and this result, toward which the development of Old Testament criticism is inevitably leading, will some day cause a sane reaction; for through these methods scholars have deprived themselves of the possibility of explaining the blessed influence which these Scriptures, so accidentally compiled according to their view, have achieved through thousands of years. The success of the Bible text, regarded merely from a historical point of view, becomes for the critic a riddle that defies all solutions, even if all dogmatical considerations are ignored.

(2) In View of the Names for God

(A) Error of Hypothesis in Principle

The names of God, Yahweh and Elohim, constituted for Astruc the starting-point for the division of Genesis into different sources (see (1) above). Two chief sources, based on the two names for God, could perhaps as a theory and in themselves be regarded as acceptable. If we add that in , in the Priestly Code (P), we are told that God had not revealed Himself before the days of Moses by the name of Yahweh, but only as â€œGod Almighty,â€ it seems to be the correct thing to separate the text, which reports concerning the times before Moses and which in parts contains the name Yahweh, into two sources, one with Yahweh and the other with Elohim. But just as soon as we conclude that the use made of the two names of God proves that there were three and not two sources, as is done from Gen 20 on, the conclusive ground for the division falls away. The second Elohist (E), whom Ilgen was the first to propose (see (1) above), in principle and a priori discredits the whole hypothesis. This new source from the very outset covers all the passages that cannot be ascribed to the Yahweh or the Elohist portions; whatever portions contain the name Elohim, as P does, and which nevertheless are prophetical in character after the manner of J, and accordingly cannot be made to fit in either the Jahwistic or the Elohistic source, seek a refuge in this third source. Even before we have done as much as look at the text, we can say that according to this method everything can be proved. And when critics go so far as to divide J and E and P into many subparts, it becomes all the more impossible to make the names for God a basis for this division into sources. Consistently we could perhaps in this case separate a Yahweh source, an Elohim source, a ha-'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m source, an 'EÌ„l Shadday source, an 'AÌ†dhoÌ„naÌ„y source, a Mal'akh Yahweh source, a Mal'akh 'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m source, etc., but unfortunately these characteristics of the sources come into conflict in a thousand cases with the others that are claimed to prove that there are different sources in the Book of Genesis.

(B) False Basis of Hypothesis

But the basis of the whole hypothesis itself, namely, P; is falsely regarded as such. If Yahweh had really been unknown before the days of Moses, as P is claimed to prove, how could J then, in so important and decisive a point in the history of the religious development of Israel, have told such an entirely different story? Or if, on the other hand, Yahweh was already known before the time of Moses, as we must conclude according to J, how was it possible for P all at once to invent a new view? This is all the more incredible since it is this author and none other who already makes use of the word Yahweh in the composition of the name of the mother of Moses, namely Jochebed (compare and ). In addition, we do not find at all in that God had before this revealed Himself as 'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m, but as 'EÌ„l Shadday, so that this would be a reason for claiming not an 'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m but an 'EÌ„l Shadday source for P on the basis of this passage (compare ; ; ; P - E! compare also in the blessing of Jacob). Finally, it is not at all possible to separate P from that which immediately precedes, which is taken from JE and employs the name Yahweh; for according to the text of P we do not know who Moses and who Aaron really were, and yet these two are in regarded as well-known persons. The new revelation of God in (P) by the side of (JE and E) is also entirely defensible and rests on a good foundation; for Moses after the failure of Ex 5 needed such a renewed encouragement (see EXODUS II, 2, 1). If this is the case, then the revelation of the name of Yahweh in cannot mean that that name had before this not been known at all, but means that it had only been relatively unknown, i.e. that in the fullest and most perfect sense God became known only as Yahweh, while before this He had revealed His character only from certain sides, but especially as to His Almighty Power.

(C) Improbability That Distinction of Divine Names Is Without Significance

In view of the importance which among oriental nations is assigned to names, it is absolutely unthinkable that the two names Yahweh and Elohim had originally been used without any reference to their different meanings. The almost total omission of the name Yahweh in later times or the substitution of the name Elohim for it in Psalms 42 through 83 is doubtless based in part on the reluctance which gradually arose in Israel to use the name at all; but this cannot be shown as probable for older times, in which it is claimed that E was written. In the case of P the rule, according to which the name Elohim is said to have been used for the pre-Mosaic period, and the reason for the omission of Yahweh would have been an entirely different one. Then, too, it would be entirely inexplicable why J should have avoided the use of the name Elohim. The word Elohim is connected with a root that signifies â€œto fear,â€ and characterizes God from the side of His power, as this is, e.g., seen at once in Gen 1. Yahweh is splendidly interpreted in ; and the word is connected with the archaic form haÌ„waÌ„h for haÌ„yaÌ„h, â€œto be,â€ and the word characterizes God as the being who at all times continues to be the God of the Covenant, and who, according to Gen 2:4-3:24, can manifestly be none other than the Creator of the universe in Gen 1:1 through 2:3, even if from Gen 12 on He, for the time being, enters into a special relation to Abraham, his family and his people, and by the use of the combined names Yahweh-Elohim is declared to be identical with the God who created the world, as e.g. this is also done in the section Ex 7:8 through 13:16, where, in the 10 plagues, Yahweh's omnipotent power is revealed (compare EXODUS, II, 2, 2); and in it is charged against-Pharaoh and his courtiers, that they did not yet fear Yahweh-Elohim, i.e. the God of the Covenant, who at the same time is the God of the universe (compare also , , ; ).

(D) Real Purpose in Use of Names for God

But now it is further possible to show clearly, in connection with a number of passages, that the different names for God are in Genesis selected with a perfect consciousness of the difference in their meanings, and that accordingly the choice of these names does not justify the division of the book into various sources.

(i) Decreasing Use of Yahweh

The fact that the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Terah, of Isaac, and of Jacob begin with the name Yahweh but end without this name. In the history of Abraham are to be noted the following passages: , , , , ; , , , , ; ; , , ; , -7, , , , ; ; in the history of Isaac: , , ; , , , , , , ; and in the toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Jacob , ; , , . In these passages the beginnings are regularly made with the name Yahweh, although with decreasing frequency before the name Elohim is used, and notwithstanding that in all these sections certain selections from P and E must also be considered in addition to J. Beginning with Gen 12, in which the story of the selection of Abraham is narrated, we accordingly find emphasized, at the commencement of the history of each patriarch, this fact that it is Yahweh, the God of the Covenant, who is determining these things. Beginning with Gen 40 and down to about Ex 2 we find the opposite to be the case, although J is strongly represented in this section, and we no longer find the name Yahweh (except in one passage in the blessing of Jacob, which passage has been taken from another source, and hence is of no value for the distinction of the sources J, E and P; this is the remarkable passage ). In the same way the story of Abraham (-11) closes without mention being made of the name of Yahweh, which name is otherwise found in all of these histories, except in Gen 23 (see below). The toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Isaac, too, use the name Yahweh for the last time in ; and from this passage down to the name is not found. It is accordingly clear that in the history of the patriarchs there is a gradual decrease in the number of times in which the name Yahweh occurs, and in each case the decrease is more marked; and this is most noticeable and clearest in the history of Joseph, manifestly in order to make all the more prominent the fact that the revelation of God, beginning with , is that of Yahweh. These facts alone make the division of this text into three sources J, E and P impossible.

(ii) Reference to Approach of Man to God, and Departure from Him

The fact, further, that the approach of an individual to God or his departure from God could find its expression in the different uses made of the names of God is seen in the following. In connection with Ishmael and Lot the name Yahweh can be used only so long as these men stood in connection with the kingdom of God through their relation to Abraham (compare , , , , and ; f, 16), but only the name Elohim can be used as soon as they sever this connection (compare , , , and ). On the other hand, Elohim is used in the beginning of the history of the Gentile Abimelech (, , , , ; f); while afterward, when he has come into closer relations to the patriarchs, the name Yahweh is substituted (, ). A similar progress is found in separate narratives of the patriarchs themselves, since in and chapter 28 the knowledge of Elohim is changed into that of Yahweh (compare , , with , , , , and with , ).

(iii) Other Reasons

Elohim can, further, in many cases be explained on the basis of an implied or expressed contrast, generally over against men (compare , ; in the second of these two passages the fear of God is placed in contrast to godlessness); ; ; f; compare with and ; ; ; or on the basis of an accommodation to the standpoint of the person addressed, as in -5 (serpent); , , , , ; ; (Gentiles); or on the basis of grammar, as in ; ; , ; because the composition with the proper name Yahweh could never express the indefinite article (a prince of God, a camp of God, a Bethel or house of prayer); or finally in consequence of the connection with earlier passages (compare with chapter 1; , ; ; with chapter 17). A comparison of these passages shows that, of course, different reasons may have induced the author to select the name Elohim, e.g. ; ; .

(iv) Systematic Use in History of Abraham

That the names for God are systematically used is finally attested by the fact that in the history of Abraham, after the extensive use of the name Yahweh in its beginning (see above), this name is afterward found combined with a large number of other and different names; so that in each case it is Yahweh of whom all further accounts speak, and yet the name of Yahweh is explained, supplemented and made clear for the consciousness of believers by the new appellations, while the full revelation of His being indeed begins only in Ex 3 and , at which place the different rays of His character that appeared in earlier times are combined in one brilliant light. The facts in the case are the following. In the story of Abraham, with which an epoch of fundamental importance in the history of revelation begins, we find Yahweh alone in Gen 12 f. With the exception of chapter 23, where a characteristic appellation of God is not found, and -11, where we can claim a decadence in the conception of the Divinity (concerning ; ; see above, the name of Yahweh is retained in all of these stories, as these have been marked out (III, 2, 6); but beginning with chapter 14 they do not at all use any longer only one name for God. We here cite only those passages where, in each ease, for the first time a new name for God is added, namely, , 'EÌ„l â€›ElyoÌ„n; , Creator of heaven and of earth; , 'AÌ†dhoÌ„naÌ„y; , the Angel of Yahweh; , the God that seeth; , 'EÌ„l Shadday; , 'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m; , ha-'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m; chapters 18 f, special relation to the three men (compare and ); , the Judge of the whole earth; , 'EÌ†loÌ„hÄ±Ì„m constructed as a plural; , the Angel of God; , the God of heaven and the God of the earth; , the God of Abraham.

(E) Scantiness of the Materials for Proof

If we add, finally, that to prove the hypothesis we are limited to the meager materials found in through if; that in this comparatively small number of chapters Gen 40 to Ex 2 cannot be utilized in this discussion (see above under (d); that all those passages, in which J and E are inseparably united must be ignored in this discussion; that all other passages in which J and E are often and rapidly interchanged from the very outset are suspiciously akin to begging the question; that , which with its â€œYahwehâ€ is ascribed to R, is absolutely needed as the conclusion of the preceding Elohim story; that in with its â€œYahwehâ€ (Yahweh) in the Jahwist (Jahwist), on the other hand, the opening Elohim story from E, which is necessary for an explanation of the dwelling of Abraham in the south country, precedes; that the angel of Yahweh () is found in E; that 2:4 through 3:24 from J has besides Yahweh the name Elohim, and in -5 only Elohim (see above); that in ; P Yahweh is found; that , which is ascribed to J, is surrounded by portions of the Priestly Code (P), and contains the name Yahweh, and would be a torso, but in connection with chapter 5 the Priestly Code (P), in reality is in its proper place, as is the intervening remark ( P); that, on the other hand, in ; , ; ; ; Elohim is found - in view of all these facts it is impossible to see how a greater confusion than this could result from the hypothesis of a division of the sources on the basis of the use made of the names of God. And then, too, it is from the very outset an impossibility, that in the Book of Genesis alone such an arbitrary selection of the names for God should have been made and nowhere else.

(F) Self-Disintegration of the Critical Position

The modern critics, leaving out of consideration entirely their further dissection of the text, themselves destroy the foundation upon which this hypothesis was originally constructed, when Sievers demands for Gen 1 (from P) an original Yahweh Elohim in the place of the Elohim now found there; and when others in Gen 18 f J claim an original Elohim; and when in 17:1 through 21:1 the name Yahweh is said to have been intentionally selected by P.

(G) Different Uses in the Septuagint

Naturally it is not possible to discuss all the pertinent passages at this place. Even if, in many cases, it is doubtful what the reasons were for the selection of the names for God, and even if these reasons cannot be determined with our present helps, we must probably, nevertheless, not forget that the Septuagint in its translation of Genesis in 49 passages, according to Eerdman's reckoning, and still more according to Wiener's, departs from the use of the names for God from the Hebrew original. Accordingly, then, a division of Genesis into different sources on the basis of the different names for God cannot be carried out, and the argument from this use, instead of proving the documentary theory, has been utilized against it.

III. The Structure of the Individual Pericopes

In this division of the article, there is always to be found (under 1) a consideration of the unity of the Biblical text and (under 2) the rejection of the customary division into different sources.

The conviction of the unity of the text of Genesis and of the impossibility of dividing it according to different sources is strongly confirmed and strengthened by the examination of the different pericopes. Here, too, we find the division on the basis of the typical numbers 4, 7, 10, 12. It is true that in certain cases we should be able to divide in a different way; but at times the intention of the author to divide according to these numbers practically compels acceptance on our part, so that it would be almost impossible to ignore this matter without detriment, especially since we were compelled to accept the same fact in connection with the articles EXODUS (II); LEVITICUS (II, 2); DAY OF ATONEMENT (I, 2, 1), and also EZEKIEL (I, 2, 2). But more important than these numbers, concerning the importance or unimportance of which there could possibly be some controversy, are the fundamental religious and ethical ideas which run through and control the larger pericopes of the [toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Terah, Isaac and Jacob in such a way that it is impossible to regard this as merely the work of a redactor, and we are compelled to consider the book as the product of a single writer.

1. The Structure of the Prooemium (Genesis 1 Through 2:3)

The structure of the proemium (Gen 1:1 through 2:3) is generally ascribed to P. Following the introduction (, ; creation of chaos), we have the creation of the seven days with the Sabbath as a conclusion. The first and the second three days correspond to each other (1st day, the light; 4th day, the lights; 2nd day, the air and water by the separation of the waters above and the waters below; 5th day, the animals of the air and of the water; 3rd day, the dry land and the vegetation; 6th day, the land animals and man; compare also in this connection that there are two works on each day). We find Exodus also divided according to the number seven (see EXODUS, II, 1; compare also Ex 24:18b through 31:18; see EXODUS, II, 2, 5, where we have also the sevenfold reference to the Sabbath idea in Ex, and that, too, repeatedly at the close of different sections, just as we find this here in Genesis); and in Lev compare chapters 23; 25; 27; see LEVITICUS, II, 2, 2; the VIII, IX, and appendix; and in J; 5:1-24 P; 6:9 through 9:29; 36:1 through 37:1 (see under 2, 1, 2, 3, 1).

2. Structure of the Ten Toledhoth

The ten toÌ„ledhoÌ„th are found in Gen 2:4 through 50:26.

(1) The toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of the Heavens and the Earth (Genesis 2:4 Through 4:26)

(1) The Biblical Text

(a) Gen 2:4-25, Paradise and the first human beings; (b) 3:1-24, the Fall; (c) 4:1-16, Cain and Abel; (d) -26, the Cainites, in seven members (see under 1 above) and Seth. The number 4 appears also in 5:1 through 6:8 (see under 2); 10:1 through 11:9 (see under 4); and especially 11:27 through 25:11 (under 6). Evidently (a) and (b), (c) and (d) are still more closely connected.

(2) Rejection of the Division into Sources

(Gen 1:1 through 2:4a P and 2:4b through 4:26 J)

Ch 2 does not contain a new account of creation with a different order in the works of creation. This section speaks of animals and plants, not for their own sakes, but only on account of their connection with man. The creation of the woman is only a further development of Gen 1. While formerly the critics divided this section into 2:4 through 4:26 J, they now cut it up into J1 and J2 (see under II, 2, 1 (c) (because, they say, the tree of life is mentioned only in and , while in and the Divine command is restricted to the tree of knowledge of good and evil. But it is impossible to see why there should be a contradiction here, and just as little can we see why the two trees standing in the midst of the garden should not both have had their significance (compare ; ). It is further asserted that a division of J is demanded by the fact that the one part of J knows of the Fall (), and the other does not know of such a break in the development of mankind (). But the civilization attained by the Cainites could certainly have passed over also to the Sethites (see also ); and through Noah and his sons have been continued after the Deluge. Then, too, the fact that Cain built a city (), and the fact that he became a fugitive and a wanderer (), are not mutually exclusive; just as the beginnings made with agriculture () are perfectly consistent with the second fact.

(2) The toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Adam (Gen 5:1 Through 6:8)

(1) The Biblical Text

(a) Gen 5:1-24, seven generations from Adam to Lamech (see under 1, and ); (b) -32, four generations from the oldest of men, Methuselah, down to the sons of Noah; (c) -4, intermingling of the sons of God and the sons of men; (d) -8, corruption of all mankind. Evidently at this place (a) and (b), (c) and (d) correspond with each other.

(2) Rejection of the Division into Sources

(Genesis 5 P with the Exception of (see II, 2, 2 (e)); ; -8 J)

J presupposes chapter 1 P; as, on the other hand, the fact that the generations that, according to chapter 5 the Priestly Code (P), had in the meanwhile been born, die, presupposes the advent of sin, concerning which only J had reported in chapter 3. In the case of the Priestly Code (P), however, in it is said that everything was very good.

(3) The toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Noah (Genesis 6:9 Through 9:29)

(1) The Biblical Text

Seven sections (see 1 above) viz: (a) -22, the building of the ark; (b) -9, entering the ark; (c) -24, the increase of the Flood; (d) -14, the decrease of the Flood; (e) -19, leaving the ark; (f) 8:22 through 9:17, declaration of a covenant relation between God and Noah; (g) -29, transfer of the Divine blessing upon Shem.

(2) Rejection of the Division into Sources

(-5, -10, , , , f; , , -12, , -22; -27 J, the Rest from P)

In all the sources are found the ideas that the Deluge was the punishment of God for sin; further, the deliverance of the righteous Noah and his wife and three sons Shem, Ham and Japheth and their wives; the deliverance of the different kinds of animals; the announcement of the covenant relations between God and mankind after the Deluge; the designation of the Deluge with the term mabbuÌ„l and of the ark with teÌ„bhaÌ„h. In the Babylonian account, which without a doubt stands in some connection with the Biblical, are found certain measurements of the ark, which in the Bible are only in the Priestly Code (P), as also the story of the sending out of the birds when the flood was decreasing, and of the sacrifices of those who had been delivered, which in the Bible are said to be found only in J; and these facts are a very powerful argument against the division into sources. Further, the Priestly Code (P), in case the critics were right, would have contained nothing of the thanks of Noah for his deliverance, although he was a pious man; and in the case of J we should not be informed what kind of an ark it was into which Noah was directed to go (); nor how he can already in build an altar, as he has not yet gone out of the ark; and, further, how the determination of Yahweh, that He would not again curse the earth but would bless it, can be a comfort to him, since only P has reported concerning the blessing (). Even if the distinction is not always clearly made between clean and unclean animals, and different numbers are found in the case of each ( f; -16 the Priestly Code (P), over against f in J), yet this is to be regarded merely as a lack of exactness or, perhaps better, rather as a summary method of procedure. The difficulties are not even made any easier through the separation into sources, since in f in J both numbers and the distinction between the two kinds of animals are used indiscriminately. Here, too, in J we find the name Elohim used. The next contradiction that is claimed, namely that the Deluge according to J lasted only 61 days, and is arranged in 40 days (, , ; ) plus 3 X 7 = 21 days (, , ), while in P it continues for 1 year and 11 days (, ; -5, ), is really a self-inflicted agony of the critics. The report of the Bible on the subject is perfectly clear. The rain descends for 40 days ( J); but as in addition also the fountains of the deep are broken up ( P), we find in this fact a reason for believing that they increased still more ( P and J). The 40 days in J cannot at all be identified with those mentioned in ; for if this were the case the raven would have been sent out at a time when the waters had reached their highest stage, and even according to J the Deluge covered the entire world. In general see above, II, 2, 1 (c).

(4) The toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of the Sons of Noah (Genesis 10:1 Through 11:9)

(1) The Biblical Text

(a) -5, the Japhethites; (b) -20, the Hamites; (c) -32, the Shemites; (d) -9, the Babylonian confusion of tongues. Evidently (a) to (c) is to be regarded as in contrast to (d) (compare also , J in addition to P).

(2) Rejection of the Division into Sources

(-7, , f, 31 f the Priestly Code (P), the Rest Belonging to J)

The distribution of Genesis 10 between P and J is actually ridiculous, since in this case J does not speak of Japheth at all, and the genealogy of the Hamites would connect directly with the Priestly Code (P), a phenomenon which must have been repeated in . The Jewish Midrash, in addition, and possibly correctly, counts 70 peoples (compare ; ; , ; ).

(5) The toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Shem (Genesis 11:10-26)

10 generations (see under II, 1).

(6) The toÌ„ledhoÌ„th of Terah (Gen 11:27 Through 25:11)

(1) The Biblical Text

After the introduction (-32), theme of the history of Abraham is given in -4 (, the promise of the holy land; , promise of many descendants; , announcement of the double influence of Abraham on the world; , the obedience of Abraham's faith in his trust upon the Divine promise). In contrast to the first three thoughts which characterize God's relation to Abraham, the fourth is placed, which emphasizes. Abraham's relation to God (see under (d)). But both thoughts give complete expression to the intimate communion between God and Abraham. On the basis of these representations, which run through the entire story and thus contribute materially to its unification, this section can also be divided, as one of these after the other comes into the foreground. These four parts (12:4b through 14:24; 15:1 through 18:15; 18:16 through 21:34; 22:1 through 25:11) can each be divided again into four subdivisions, a scheme of division that is found also in Ex 35:4 through 40:38; Lev 11-15; 16 (compare EXODUS, II, 2, 7; LEVITICUS, II, 2, 2, III and IV; DAY OF ATONEMENT, I, 2, 1), and is suggested by Dt 12 through 26 (compare also my book, Wider den Bann der Quellenscheidung, the results of the investigation of which work are there reproduced without entering upon the details of the argument).

(a) Gen 12:4b through 14:24, in which the reference to the promised land is placed in the foreground; see , and the passages and statements in parentheses in the following: (i) -8, Abraham's journey to Canaan ( the Priestly Code (P), 6, 7, 8 J); (ii) 12:9 through 13:4, descent to Egypt from Canaan, and return (, ; -4 J); -18, separation from Lot ( the Priestly Code (P), 7, 9 J, 12a the Priestly Code (P), 14 f, 17, 18 J); chapter 14, expedition against Chedorlaomer, etc. (Abraham is blessed by the priest-king of the country, and receives as homage from the products of the country bread and wine ( f), while he in return gives tithes ()). The division of this section (12:4b through 14:24) is to be based on the similarity of the closing verses (; ; ).

(b) Gen 15:1 through 18:15, unfolding of the promise of descendants for Abraham by this announcement that he is to have a son of his own; compare and what is placed in parentheses in the following: chapter 15, Yahweh's covenant with Abraham (, JE, 4 J, 5 E, 13, 14, 16, 18 J). The promise is not fulfilled through Eliezer, but only through an actual son (, ); 16:1-16, Hagar gives birth to Ishmael as the son of Abraham. Hagar's son, too, namely Ishmael, is not the genuine heir, notwithstanding the connection between and (compare -20 P); chapter 17 the Priestly Code (P), promise of the birth of Isaac given to Abraham (17:2-17, , ); -15, Sarah also hears that Isaac is promised (, -15).

(c) Gen 18:16 through 21:34, the double influence of Abraham on the world; compare and what is in parentheses in the following: 18:16 through 19:38, the pericope dealing with Sodom; (i) 18:16-33, Abraham's petition for the deliverance of Sodom; (ii) -11, the sin of the Sodomites, while Lot shows some of the characteristics of Abraham; (iii) 19:12-28, story of the destruction, in connection with which Lot receives the benefit of his relation to Abraham (, , , ); (iv) Lot ceases to be a part of this history after this destruction; 20:1-18, Abraham with Abimelech (, E, 18 R, punishment; , , intercession); 21:1-21, Ishmael ceases to be part of this history (, , E); -34, Abraham's agreement with Abimelech (the latter seeks Abraham's friendship and fears his enmity, , E).

(d) Gen 22:1 through 25:11ff, Abraham's faith at its culminating point; compare and what is in parentheses in the following: (i) 22:1-19, the sacrifice of Isaac (, E, 16, 18 R); (ii) chapter 23, purchase of the place to bury the dead, which act was the result of his faith in the promised land; (iii) chapter 24 is introduced by -24, which has no independent character. With the twelve descendants of Nahor compare the twelve sons of Jacob, the twelve of Ishmael (; ), and on the number 12 see Ex 24:18 through 30:10, under EXODUS, II, 2, 5; Lev 1-7 under LEVITICUS, II, 2, 2, i, and under EZEKIEL, I, 2, 2. Ch 24 itself contains the story of how a wife was secured for Isaac from among his relatives (the faith in the success of this plan is transmitted from Abraham to his servant); (iv) -11, the sons of the concubine of Abraham (J and R) cease to be a part of this history; transfer of the entire inheritance to the son of promise (Jahwist); burial in the ground bought for this purpose (P) (all of these concluding acts stand in close connection with Abraham's faith). In reference to the force of the names of God in connecting Gen 11:27 through 25:11, see above under II, 2, 2 (d).

(2) Rejection of the Division into Sources

(, f; , ; , , ; , , f; 17; ; , -5; 23; -11 P; 14 from an unknown source; ; 20:1-17; 21:8-32; -13, E; -3; JE; ; -18; R; all else belongs to J).

Through the passages ascribed to P breaks are caused in the text of J in f; (Lot); in chapter 16, where the conclusion is lacking; in (the reference of the pronoun); in (Sarah's death); in (no mention of Abraham's death). On the other hand P presupposes the text of J in f; ; ; . In the case of E we need mention only the abrupt break in ; and, finally, the text of the Priestly Code (P), leaving out of consideration the larger sections (chapters 17 and 23), is entirely too meager to constitute an independent document.

We will here discuss also the so-called duplicates (see under II, 2, 1, a and c). The different stories concerning the danger in which the wives of Abraham and Isaac were involved in J; E; J directly presuppose each other. Thus, in , the Elohist (E), Abraham regards it as a fact that such situations are often to be met with, and consequently the possibility of an occurrence of such an event could not have appeared so remarkable to an Oriental as it does to a modern critic; suggests the story in . The words used here also show that the three stories in question did not originate independently of each other (compare ; ; 12:19 through 26:7; ; 12:12 through 26:10; ; 12:18 through 26:3; ; (guÌ„r); see under II, 2, 1, c). The two Ishmael pericopes (chapters