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sûr´pent:
1. General:
Serpents are not particularly abundant in Palestine, but they are often mentioned in the Bible. In the Hebrew there are 11 names. The New Testament has four Greek names and the Septuagint employs two of these and three others as well as several compound expressions, such as ὀÌφις πεταÌμενος, oÌphis petaÌmenos, “flying serpent,†ὀÌφις θανατῶν, oÌphis thanatoÌ„Ìn, “deadly serpent,†and ὀÌφις δαÌκνων, oÌphis daÌknoÌ„n, “biting†or “stinging serpent.†Notwithstanding this large vocabulary, it is impossible to identify satisfactorily a single species. Nearly every reference states or implies poisonous qualities, and in no case is there so much as a hint that a snake may be harmless, except in several expressions referring to the millennium, where their harmlessness is not natural but miraculous. In Arabic there is a score or more of names of serpents, but very few of them are employed at all definitely. It may be too much to say that the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine consider all snakes to be poisonous, but they do not clearly distinguish the non-poisonous ones, and there are several common and well-known species which are universally believed to be poisonous, though actually harmless. Of nearly 25 species which are certainly known to be found in Syria and Palestine, four are deadly poisonous, five are somewhat poisonous, and the rest are absolutely harmless. With the exception of kÌ£ippoÌ„z, “dart-snake†() which is probably the name of a bird and not of a snake, every one of the Hebrew and Greek names occurs in passages where poisonous character is expressed or implied. The deadly poisonous snakes have large perforated poison fangs situated in the front of the upper jaw, an efficient apparatus like a hypodermic syringe for conveying the poison into the depths of the wound. In the somewhat poisonous snakes, the poison fangs are less favorably situated, being farther back, nearly under the eye. Moreover, they are smaller and are merely grooved on the anterior aspect instead of being perforated. All snakes, except a few which are nearly or quite toothless, have numerous small recurved teeth for holding and helping to swallow the prey, which is usually taken into the stomach while living, the peculiar structure of the jaws and the absence of a breast-bone enabling snakes to swallow animals which exceed the ordinary size of their own bodies.
2. Serpents of Palestine and Syria:
The following list includes all the serpents which are certainly known to exist in Palestine and Syria, omitting the names of several which have been reported but whose occurrence does not seem to be sufficiently confirmed. The range of each species is given.
(1) Harmless Serpents.
Typhlops vermicularis Merr., Greece and Southwestern Asia; T. simoni Bttgr., Palestine; Eryx jaculus L., Greece, North Africa, Central and Southwestern Asia; Tropidonotus tessellatus Laur., Central and Southeastern Europe, Central and Southwestern Asia; Zamenis gemonensis Laur., Central and Southeastern Europe, Greek islands, Southwestern Asia; Z. dahlii Fitz., Southeastern Europe, Southwestern Asia, Lower Egypt; Z. rhodorhachis Jan., Egypt, Southwestern Asia, India; Z. ravergieri Menatr., Southwestern Asia: Z. nummifer Renss., Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, Asia Minor; Oligodon melanocephalus Jan., Syria, Palestine, Sinai, Lower Egypt; Contia decemlineata D. and B., Syria, Palestine; C. collaris Menerr., Greek islands, Cyprus, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine; C. rothi Jan., Syria, Palestine; C. coronella Schleg., Syria, Palestine
(2) Somewhat Poisonous Serpents.
Tarbophis savignyi Blgr., Syria, Palestine, Egypt; T. fallax Fleischm., Balkan Peninsula, Greek islands, Cyprus, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine; Coelopeltis monspessulana Herre., Mediterranean countries, Caucasus, Persia; Psammophis schokari Forsk., North Africa, Southwestern Asia; Micrelaps muelleri Bttgr., Syria, Palestine
(3) Deadly Poisonous Serpents.
Vipera ammodytes L., Southeastern Europe, Asia Minor, Syria; Vipera lebetina L., North Africa, Greek islands, Southwestern Asia; Cerastes cornutus Forsk., Egypt, Sinai, Arabia; Echis coloratus Gthr., Southern Palestine, Arabia, Socotra.
To this list should be added the scheltopusik, a large snake-like, limbless lizard, Ophiosaurus apus, inhabiting Southeastern Europe, Asia Minor, Persia, Syria and Palestine, which while perfectly harmless is commonly classed with vipers.
Of all these the commonest is Zamenis nummifer, Arabic ‛aḳd-ul-jauz, “string of walnuts,†a fierce but non-poisonous snake which attains the length of a meter. Its ground color is pale yellow and it has a dorsal series of distinct diamond-shaped dark spots. Alternating with spots of the dorsal row are on each side two lateral rows of less distinct dark spots. It is everywhere considered to be fatal. Another common snake is Zamenis gemonensis, Arabic ḥanash, which attains the length of two meters. It is usually black and much resembles the American black snake, Zamenis constrictor. Like all species of Zamenis, these are harmless. Other common harmless snakes are Zamenis dahlii, Tropidonotus tessellatus which is often found in pools and streams, Contia collaris, Oligodon melanocephalus, a small, nearly toothless snake with the crown of the head coal black.
Among the somewhat poisonous snakes, a very common one is Coelopeltis monspessulana, Arabic al-ḥaiyat ul-barshat, which is about two meters long, as larke as the black snake. It is uniformly reddish brown above, paler below. Another is Psammophis schokari, Arabic an-nashshâb, “the arrow.†It is about a meter long, slender, and white with dark stripes. Many marvelous and utterly improbable tales are told of its jumping powers, as for instance that it can shoot through the air for more than a hundred feet and penetrate a tree like a rifle bullet.
The commonest of the deadly poisonous snakes is Vipera lebetina, which attains the length of a meter, has a thick body, a short tail, a broad head and a narrow neck. It is spotted somewhat as Zamenis nummifer, but the spots are less regular and distinct and the ground color is gray rather than yellow. It does not seem to have a distinct name. Cerastes cornutus, having two small horns, which are modified scales, over the eyes, is a small but dangerous viper, and is found in the south. Not only are the species of poisonous serpents fewer than the non-poisonous species, but the individuals also appear to be less numerous. The vast majority of the snakes which are encountered are harmless.
3. Names:
As stated above, all of the Hebrew and Greek names except ḳippōz, which occurs only in , are used of snakes actually or supposedly poisonous. This absence of discrimination between poisonous and non-poisonous kinds makes determination of the species difficult. Further, but few of the Hebrew names are from roots whose meanings are clear, and there is little evident relation to Arabic names.
(1) The commonest Hebrew word is × ×—×©×, naÌ„hÌ£aÌ„sh, which occurs 31 times and seems to be a generic word for serpent. While not always clearly indicating a venomous serpent, it frequently does: e.g. ; ; ; , ; ; ; . According to BDB it is perhaps from an onomatopoetic root × ×—×©×, naÌ„hÌ£ash, “to hiss.†It may be akin to the Arabic hÌ£anash, which means “snake†in general, or especially the black snake. Compare Ir-nahash (); Nahash (a) (; ), (b) (), (c) (); also × ×—×©×ת, nehÌ£oÌ„sheth, “copper†or “brassâ€; and × ×—×©×תּן, nehÌ£ushtaÌ„n, “Nehushtan,†the brazen serpent (). But BDB derives the last two words from a different root.
(2) שׂרף, saÌ„raÌ„ph, apparently from שׂרף, saÌ„raph, “to burn,†is used of the fiery serpents of the wilderness. In , it occurs in the singular: “Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a standard.†In we have שׂרף ×”× Ö¼×—×©××™×, ha-nehÌ£aÌ„shı̄m ha-seraphim, “fiery serpentsâ€; in the same in the singular: שׂרף × ×—×©×, naÌ„hÌ£aÌ„sh saÌ„raÌ„ph, also translated “fiery serpentsâ€; in ; we have מעופף שׂרף, saÌ„raÌ„ph me‛oÌ„pheÌ„ph, “fiery flying serpent.†The same word in the plural שׂרפי×, seraÌ„phı̄m, is translated “seraphim†in , .
(3) תּבּין, tannı̄n, elsewhere “dragon†or “seamonster†(which see), is used of the serpents into which the rods of Aaron and the magicians were transformed (, , ), these serpents being designated by naÌ„hÌ£aÌ„sh in ; . TÌ£annı̄n is rendered “serpent†(the King James Version “dragonâ€) in , “Their wine is the poison of serpents,†and , “The young lion and the serpent shalt thou trample under foot.†On the other hand, naÌ„hÌ£aÌ„sh seems in three passages to refer to a mythical creature or dragon: “His hand hath pierced the swift serpent†(); “In that day Yahweh ... will punish leviathan the swift serpent and leviathan the crooked serpent†(); “...though they be hid from my sight in the bottom of the sea, thence will I command the serpent, and it shall bite them†().
(4) זחלי, zoÌ„hÌ£ăleÌ„ is translated “crawling things†in (the King James Version “serpentsâ€) and in (the King James Version “wormsâ€).
(5) עכש×וּב, ‛akhshuÌ„bh, occurs only in , where it is translated “adder†Septuagint ἀσπιÌÏ‚, aspıÌs, Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) aspis), “adders' poison is under their lips.†It has been suggested (BDB) that the reading should be עכּביש×, ‛akkaÌ„bhı̄sh, “spider†(which see). The parallel word in the previous line is naÌ„hÌ£aÌ„sh.
(6) פּתן, pethen, like most of the other names a word of uncertain etymology, occurs 6 times and it is translated “asp,†except in , “Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder.†According to Liddell and Scott, aspis is the name of the Egyptian cobra, Naia haje L., which is not included in (2) above, because it does not certainly appear to have been found in Palestine The name “adder†is applied to various snakes all of which may perhaps be supposed to be poisonous but some of which are actually harmless. Aspis occurs in in a paraphrase of (see (5) above); it occurs frequently, though not uniformly, in Septuagint for (2), (5), (6), (7), (8) and (10).
(7) צפע, cepha‛, occurs only in where it is translated “adder†(the King James Version “cockatrice,†the English Revised Version “basilisk,†Septuagint ἐÌκγονα ἀσπιÌδων, eÌkgona aspıÌdoÌ„n, Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) regulus). The root צפע, caÌ„pha‛, of (7) and (8) may be an onomatopoetic word meaning “to hiss†(BDB).
(8) ×¦×¤×¢×•× ×™, or ×¦×¤×¢× ×™, ciph‛oÌ„nı̄, occurs in , “At the last it biteth like a serpent (naÌ„hÌ£aÌ„sh), and stingeth like an adder†(ciph‛oÌ„nı̄). In ; , and , the American Standard Revised Version has “adder,†while the King James Version has cockatrice†and the English Revised Version has “basilisk.â€
(9) ש×פיפן, shephı̄phoÌ„n, occurs only in :
“Dan shall be a serpent (nāḥāsh) in the way,
An adder (shephı̄phōn) in the path,
That biteth the horse's heels,
So that his rider falleth backward.â€
This has been thought to be Cerastes cornulus, on the authority of Tristram (NHB), who says that lying in the path it will attack the passer-by, while most snakes will glide away at the approach of a person or large animal. He adds that his horse was much frightened at seeing one of these serpents coiled up in a camel's footprint. The word is perhaps akin to the Arabic siff, or suff, which denotes a spotted and deadly snake.
(10) ×פעה, 'eph‛eh, is found in ; ; , and in English Versions of the Bible is uniformly translated “viper.†It is the same as the Arabic 'af‛a, which is usually translated “viper,†though the writer has never found anyone who could tell to what snake the name belongs. In Arabic as in Hebrew a poisonous snake is always understood.
(11) קפּוז, kÌ£ippoÌ„z, the American Standard Revised Version “dart-snake,†the English Revised Version “arrowsnake,†the King James Version “great owl,†only in , “There shall the dart-snake make her nest, and lay, and hatch, and gather under her shade; yea, there shall the kites be gathered, every one with her mate.†“This is the concluding verse in a vivid picture of the desolation of Edom. The renderings “dart-snake†and “arrowsnake†rest on the authority of Bochert, but Septuagint has ἐχῖνος, echıÌnos, “hedgehog,†and Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) ericeus, “hedgehog.†The rendering of the King James Version “great owl†seems preferable to the others, because the words “make her nest, and lay, and hatch, and gather under her shade†are as a whole quite inapplicable to a mammal or to a reptile. The derivation from קפז, kÌ£aÌ„phaz (compare Arabic kÌ£aÌ„faz), “to spring,†“to dart,†suits, it is true, a snake, and not a hedgehog, but may also suit an owl. Finally, the next word in is “kites,†דיּות, dayyoÌ„th; compare Arabic hÌ£ida'at. See BITTERN; OWL; PORCUPINE.
(12) ὀÌφις, oÌphis, a general term for “serpent,†occurs in numerous passages of the New Testament and Septuagint, and is fairly equivalent to naÌ„hÌ£aÌ„sh.
(13) ἀσπιÌÏ‚, aspıÌs, occurs in the New Testament only in parallel to . See under (5) ‛akhshuÌ„bh and (6) pethen. It is found in Septuagint for these words, and also for 'eph‛eh ().
(14) ἐÌχιδνα, eÌchidna, occurs in , “A viper came out ... and fastened on his (Paul's) hand,†and 4 times in the expression “offspring (the King James Version “generationâ€) of vipers,†γεννηÌματα ἐχιδνῶν, genneÌ„Ìmata echidnoÌ„Ìn (; ; ; ). The allied (masculine?) form ἐÌχις, eÌchis, occurs in Sirach 39:30, the Revised Version (British and American) “adder.â€
(15) ἑÏπετοÌν, herpetoÌn, “creeping thing,†the King James Version “serpent,†is found in .
That the different Hebrew and Greek names are used without clear distinction is seen from several examples of the employment of two different names in parallel expressions:
“Their poison is like the poison of a serpent (nāḥāsh);
They are like the deaf adder (pethen) that stoppeth her ear†().
“They have sharpened their tongue like a serpent (nāḥāsh);
Adders' (‛akhshūbh) poison is under their lips†().
“For, behold, I will send serpents (neḥāshı̄m), adders (ciph‛ōnı̄m), among you, which will not be charmed; and they shall bite you, saith Yahweh†().
“They shall lick the dust like a serpent (nāḥāsh): like crawling things of the earth (zōhălē'erec) they shall come trembling out of their close places†().
“He shall suck the poison of asps (pethen): The viper's ('eph‛eh) tongue shall slay him†().
“Their wine is the poison of serpents (tannı̄nı̄m), and the cruel venom of asps (pethānı̄m)†().
“And the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp (pethen), and the weaned child shall put his hand on the adder's (ciph‛ōnı̄) den†().
See also (8) and (9) above.
4. Figurative:
Most of the Biblical references to serpents are of a figurative nature, and they usually imply poisonous qualities. The wicked (), the persecutor (), and the enemy () are likened to venomous serpents. The effects of wine are compared to the bites of serpents (). Satan is a serpent (Gen 3; ; ). The term “offspring of vipers†is applied by John the Baptist to the Pharisees and Sadducees () or to the multitudes () who came to hear him; and by Jesus to the scribes and Pharisees (; ). Dan is a “serpent in the way ... that biteth the horse's heels†(). Serpents are among the terrors of the wilderness (; ). Among the signs accompanying believers is that “they shall take up serpents†(; compare ). It is said of him that trusts in Yahweh:
“Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder:
The young lion and the serpent shalt thou trample under foot†().
In the millennium, “the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the adder's den†(). The serpent is subtle (; ); wise (); accursed (); eats dust (; ; ). The adder is deaf (). The serpent lurks in unexpected places (; ; ). Serpents may be charmed (; ; ). Among four wonderful things is “the way of a serpent upon a rock†().